Introduction
In recent years, some Gulf countries have begun to implement renewal projects that touch on a number of areas. Political reforms aimed at increasing the rights of citizens; economic reforms, aimed at diversifying the economies of these countries; and, finally, architectural projects aimed at developing highly advanced and environmentally sustainable cities or energy hubs. All these reforms serve to demonstrate these countries’ progress and change in their traditions.
The best-known example of these projects is surely the Vision 2030 launched by Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman (MBS) in Saudi Arabia. Presented as a set of social, economic and infrastructural reforms, the goal of Vision 2030 is to launch Saudi Arabia on the global stage by demonstrating its progressiveness. The United Arab Emirates has also implemented a number of projects similar to those envisioned by MBS. Just think of the development that some of the country’s cities are having and the way the country is enticing people from all around the world to settle in these futuristic scenarios.
The reality is that these reforms, despite being highly publicised and welcomed even by the global community, hide many negative aspects. If we look at the political reforms carried out in these countries, for example, we can see how they have not really led to an increase in citizens’ rights. This is because, after being presented, they are not actually implemented and are constantly manipulated by those who created them.
Even more concerning is what is really happening at the infrastructure construction sites that Saudi Arabia and the UAE are developing. These mega-projects, in fact, have gained a lot of momentum in the two countries. Both are investing a lot of money in them and involving a high number of foreign investors. Behind these projects, however, are many cases of abuse, mistreatment and violation of workers’ rights.
The most famous cases concerning workers’ conditions in Saudi Arabia mostly come from the Line construction site, the mega project of a futuristic city in the middle of the desert. However, there are a number of other active projects in the country (stadiums for the 2034 World Cup or new cities, for example) where the workers involved continue to face mistreatment. The same thing is happening in the United Arab Emirates, especially at renewable energy plant construction sites. Workers here not only face serious violations of their rights, but are also forced to work long hours in extremely high temperatures that are dangerous to their health.
The goal of this paper, therefore, is to demonstrate what is actually behind these mega-projects that Saudi Arabia and the UAE are so heavily publicising. In this way, it is possible to show how, behind the image of progressive and modern countries, serious human rights violations continue to lie, particularly in relation to workers’ rights.
Saudi Arabia
The dawn of smart cities: from King Abdullah Economic City to the NEOM Project
Mega projects are nothing new in Saudi Arabia. One of the first of these was the King Abdullah Economic City, a project launched in 2005 by King Abdullah. It is a city covering an area of 180 square kilometres on the Red Sea, 100 kilometres north of Jeddah. The entire project cost 100 billion dollars and was strategically designed at every angle to make the city a major economic, commercial and social centre.
First of all, the location was chosen very carefully. Being close to the Suez Canal, the city is a key hub for economic relations with Europe, Asia and Africa. For this reason, connected to the city, a harbour was also built that can accommodate very large boats, having a depth of 18 metres. In addition to this, the city uses very modern software to verify the identities of drivers, vehicles, and to report traffic congestion.
These aspects, however, have not saved the city’s fortunes. The latter failed to attract the number of people that the Saudi government initially thought would settle in KAEC. The number originally hoped for was 2 million, but as of 2024, only 100,000 people have actually moved into the city. This shows quite clearly how this mega-project was a failure for the Saudi government and casts many doubts on the projects that are still in development.
Concerns about projects, however, are not so much about their successful implementation or success. They are about the conditions of the people involved in their work. There are a number of testimonies describing the terrible conditions under which many workers, especially foreigners, are forced to work in Saudi Arabia. It is therefore worrying to think that many people are deprived of their rights while they are engaged in the construction of projects with dubious aims and less than assured success.
The most famous project on which Saudi Arabia is investing huge amounts of capital is certainly the NEOM Project. The latter has as its ultimate goal the construction of a city called The Line, which should stretch 170 kilometres across the desert and be able to accommodate a total of 1.5 million residents.
Since its launch, however, the project has received a lot of criticism. First of all, its actual usefulness has been questioned. Who would be tempted to take up residence in a megacity in the middle of the desert? Secondly, the way in which the government has appropriated the land on which the line will be built has been the subject of criticism and concern. In some of these, the al-Howeitat tribe has lived for centuries. When they learned that their land would be expropriated to make way for the NEOM project, they clashed with the authorities. For this reason, some members of the tribe were killed as the authorities had received orders to kill anyone who resisted the expropriation.
A further problem is certainly related to the conditions of the workers involved in the construction of the Line. Since the NEOM project started, many foreign workers have travelled to Saudi Arabia to work there. Many of them come from India, Nepal, and Bangladesh and recount the terrible conditions in which they are forced to live. Poor job security, working hours under the sun in high temperatures, wage theft and threats are just some of the abuses these workers are forced to endure. In addition, according to a documentary aired by the British ITV, 21,000 workers have died while working on the NEOM project to date. In addition to these, at least 10,000 people who also engaged in this project have disappeared.
This reveals the sad reality behind the futuristic Line project. As much as the Saudi government presents it as a project that will propel the country into the future, in reality, the suffering of many people lies behind it. Moreover, since the workers involved in this project are foreigners, they have even less protection and fewer opportunities to denounce what is happening. One of them working on the NEOM project said to Human Rights Watch that, being in the middle of nowhere, there is not even the possibility of going to an embassy. In addition to this, there is the fear of the repercussions that may occur.
Towards the FIFA World Cup 2034: between modern slavery and work-related accidents
The NEOM Project is not the only mega-project that Saudi Arabia is pursuing. In fact, in the wake of the Vision 2030 plan, the country is pursuing other projects, including stadiums to host the FIFA World Cup in 2034. As in the case of the NEOM project, the workers involved in these projects also suffer serious violations of their rights.
The work surrounding the preparations for the 2034 football cup is the one that has raised the most concern in recent months. These are mainly related to the fact that a state where human rights violations are manifold has been chosen as the host country. Following the announcement, Saudi Arabia presented its plans it has to prepare the country for this major event. 11 new stadiums will be built, four existing ones will be renovated, and 185,000 new hotel rooms will be built. In addition to this, the main transport lines will undergo a major expansion.
All this is worrying as there will certainly be many foreign workers behind these projects, who will certainly suffer the abuses. Their struggles start from the moment of recruitment. In Saudi Arabia, the so-called kafala system is in force. In order to work in the country, migrants need to be sponsored by someone who will then be their employer. In order to facilitate this, there are recruitment agencies that many foreign workers rely on, which, however, charge exorbitant amounts of money to sponsor them. This creates serious problems because, in order to be able to pay these fees, workers create debts that they are then unable to pay.
In addition to this, the kafala system creates an unbalanced situation between workers and employers. The former are tied to the latter as if they were modern ‘slaves’ and are forced to submit to their orders or risk being punished. In fact, some testimonies speak of cases where employers reduce wages as punishment or even steal them from the workers. Wage theft, in fact, is another of the big problems that affect workers in Saudi Arabia. Because of this, they are unable to pay their recruitment fees and are forced to live in borderline conditions.
In 2021, Saudi Arabia implemented a reform that was supposed to relax this system. The so-called Labour Reform Initiative (LRI) was supposed to make it easier for migrant workers to move from one employer to another. Thus, the relationship between them and their employer would be made less stringent. According to data presented by the Ministry of Human Resources and Social Development, at least one million migrant workers had benefited from the LRI in May 2024. What the ministry stated, however, does not correspond to reality. Employers continue to have great control over workers, especially with the possibility of issuing exit visas. These force workers to leave the country within a certain period of time unless they file a complaint. This system, however, remains blocked as it is not easy for workers to access the legal mechanisms.
This shows how the LRI is just another of the many reforms the Saudi Arabis put in place to demonstrate progress that does not exist. Migrant workers in the country continue to be abused and victimised by their employers, who manipulate them through a stringent system that does not allow them to obtain justice.
Another serious problem affecting workers in Saudi Arabia is safety in the workplace. In many of the mega-projects the country is dealing with, in fact, several terrible deaths have already occurred. According to testimonies collected by Human Rights Watch, many workers have fallen off construction sites, others have been electrocuted, and others have had other fatal accidents. The account of these accidents always comes from those who are present when they happen. The Saudi authorities, on the other hand, say nothing about this and seem to be incapable of producing accounts that accurately determine the causes of the deaths of migrant workers.
These deaths also affect the families of the victims, who are unable to reconstruct precisely what happened to their loved ones. This is because the deaths of these workers are often classified as “natural”, although this is highly debatable. For example, one worker happened to collapse while at work and die shortly afterwards. Although the death may have been caused by the collapse, the latter is probably a consequence of the harsh conditions workers are subjected to in the country. This, therefore, casts doubt on whether the death was indeed “natural” as the authorities told the family. In addition to this, many employers refuse to pay repatriation costs and push families to accept that their loved ones are buried in Saudi Arabia, even offering them incentives.
Such incidents may increase now that the country is preparing to host the FIFA World Cup in 2034. FIFA, the international football organisation, has handed over the management of this event to Saudi Arabia without having first carried out the necessary investigations into the way workers are treated in the country. For this reason, the construction of new stadiums and improvements to existing ones pose a serious risk to the workers involved.
The latter will not only already be subjected to the stringent conditions due to the kafala system, but will also risk their lives due to the lack of attention given by employers to safety in the workplace. Already a month ago, a Pakistani worker lost his life while working on the construction of one of the new stadiums that will host the event in 2034. Muhammad Arshad lost his life when he fell from a height on the construction site of the Aramco stadium. After his death, those who were present as witnesses were instructed to delete any video evidence of the incident and not to talk about it with anyone. Muhammad’s body was later repatriated to Pakistan and was buried in his village.
Muhammad Arshad’s death is the first linked to the construction of one of the stadiums for the 2034 World Cup, but it cannot be ruled out that there may be other cases similar to his in the future. As already mentioned, violent deaths at mega-project construction sites in Saudi Arabia are a sad reality. The fact that the country has now given the green light to further projects of this magnitude will only increase similar cases, thus minimising the protection of workers and the pain to their families.
A controversial development
Based on official records collected by Saudi Arabia’s General Organisation for Social Insurance (GOSI), construction is the field where most work-related accidents occur. For this reason, Saudi law requires employers with more than 50 workers to implement occupational health and safety rules. This should be done through specific training and risk assessments. In addition, the Human Resources and Social Development Ministry said that regular workplace inspections and investigations are conducted when certain accidents occur.
The truth of the facts, however, is as it has been described so far. Workers in Saudi Arabia have to endure continuous abuses that start from the moment they are hired, where they are subjected to unfavourable conditions, and continue in the workplace. They have no guarantee, let alone the security that their working day will end without an accident.
The statements by the Ministry of Human Resources, therefore, are nothing more than screens the government uses to keep the reality of the facts out. Saudi Arabia, having to follow the Vision 2030 plan, has every interest in showing that there is no problem in the country. In this way, there is a greater chance of attracting foreign investors, as in the NEOM project, or of being awarded major events, such as the FIFA World Cup.
The FIFA World Cup, in any case, was taken as the central example to talk about these issues, as it is the most topical and talked-about topic in recent months. There are, however, other mega-projects in which workers most likely encounter the same issues. In fact, the country is investing in many projects, including an amusement park in the city of Qiddyia; the New Murabba, a new downton in the heart of Riyadh characterised by a cube that will be the largest man-made construction; luxury resorts such as Sindalah and Amaala in the Red Sea and much more.
In light of what we know about the way foreign workers are treated in the country, however, this flourishing of projects in the country should not be seen as progress. As much as the Saudi government would like to pretend this, it must be remembered that behind these projects are workers who are exploited and have their rights completely removed.
This development in Saudi Arabia, therefore, leaves many concerns open. As important as it may be for a country to develop and invest in new projects, Saudi Arabia’s seem to be designed only to be demonstrations of grandeur and prosperity. The reality, as already mentioned, is that behind them is the suffering of many people. And it is precisely their stories that need to be told to show the true face of these mega-projects and to keep Saudi Arabia accountable for tearing down workers’ rights.
United Arab Emirates
Dubai and Abu Dhabi: artificial paradises in the middle of the desert
The United Arab Emirates is another country that is focusing heavily on a series of mega projects. Just think of the development that some of the country’s cities have undergone in recent years. First of all, there is certainly Dubai, which has become a sort of open-air amusement park attracting thousands of people a year. In 2014, Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum, Vice-President and Prime Minister of the UAE, launched the Dubai Smart City Initiative. The goal, according to the Sheikh, is to make Dubai the “happiest city in the world”. This would be achieved by improving the quality of life and creating a sustainable environment.
Over the years, this transition has taken place steadily through the implementation of a series of projects such as the Autonomous Transport Strategy, which aims to convert 25 per cent of the city’s transport to autonomous by 2030. In addition to this, projects were also launched to enlarge the city and attract more residents. These projects mostly consist of the construction of smart residential buildings that implement new technologies within them.
Abu Dhabi, the other main city of the UAE, is also experiencing the same development as Dubai. In fact, the Abu Dhabi Smart City project has led to the launch of initiatives that have improved the city’s infrastructure, transport and sustainability. The city has also been voted the smartest city in the Middle East for three consecutive years.
As with the mega-projects being realised in Saudi Arabia, the development of these projects in the Arab Emirates also comes up against a sad reality. Behind the grandeur and modernity of these cities are, in fact, the hardships of many workers, mostly foreigners, who are forced to put up with abuses of all kinds. The latter represent 88% of the United Arab Emirates’ population, and their presence in the country is fundamental for the realisation and the development of its projects.
Anyway, even in the Emirates, foreign workers face discrimination and abuses. It all starts from the recruitment process because, as in Saudi Arabia, they are forced to pay fees, which leads them into debt. This then does not allow them to send money to their families in disadvantaged countries like Bangladesh, Nepal or Pakistan. As if this were not enough, foreign workers are often victims of wage theft, which leads them to live in often borderline conditions. They are also victims of verbal and physical abuse in the workplace by their employers.
In 2023, the UAE hosted the COP, the annual UN conference on climate change. This event raised many concerns regarding the protection of workers. Firstly, it was found that the sites on which the event was held had been the theatres of serious abuses of workers. The Expo City Dubai, where the debates were held, for example, was built by workers who faced illegal recruitment fees, passport retention and discrimination.
Moreover, one of the main problems migrant workers face in the UAE is the high temperatures they are exposed to during their working days. This is certainly one of the major problems that affect these workers and entails a number of risks for them that should not be underestimated. Those most affected by this problem are those employed in construction, agriculture, animal husbandry and other occupations that involve long periods of work outside.
The Emirati government has also adopted a measure to tackle this problem, namely the summer midday work ban. This regulation, however, is not sufficient since the heat peaks are not necessarily at midday, but also at other times of the day. Moreover, employers do not protect workers even during rest hours. The latter are not provided with cool water or shaded areas under which they can protect themselves. Instead, they are often sent to cramped and un-air-conditioned places where workers are crowded together.
In the middle of the desert: UAE’s renewable energies projects
Smart cities and futuristic buildings, however, are not the only projects the UAE is investing in. Another important field they are venturing into is renewable energy. The country, in fact, uses oil, of which it is rich, as its main source of energy and as a means of economic exchange. Slowly, however, renewable energies are also gaining ground. In 2022, renewable energy production reached 5.6 gigawatts, whereas a decade ago it was zero.
To achieve its goal of becoming a fully eco-friendly country, the UAE has a number of projects in development, including several solar parks and solar power plants. One of these is the Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum Solar Park in Dubai. The latter will be the largest solar park in the world, built with an investment of AED 50 billion and will have a capacity of 5,000 MW. Another similar project is the Al-Ajban Solar Park, Abu Dhabi. The latter will have a capacity of 1,500 MW, bringing energy to thousands of homes in the country.
These projects certainly seem to be something important, especially in the historical moment we are living in. Indeed, climate change issues and ecological challenges are increasingly central topics requiring immediate action. The fact that the UAE is moving in the direction of being a fully eco-sustainable country with these projects can certainly seem a good sign. At the same time, however, we must remember who is involved in the construction of these projects and what conditions these people have to endure.
Most of these power plants are located in the middle of the desert, which puts workers at risk as they have to work in these locations at times of day when temperatures reach very high levels. Some witnesses claimed that they were forced to work for more than ten hours under the scorching sun. This is detrimental to a person’s health because, having to endure such high temperatures, at some point, the body can no longer cool itself, and the organs begin to fail. In fact, the UN has stipulated that physical work abroad should end the moment the temperature reaches 32 °C. This, however, does not seem to interest Emirati employers, who, instead, force their workers to endure much higher temperatures.
Being under high desert temperatures for a long time is a serious risk for workers. They may suffer from cramps, exhaustion, heart attacks or other cardiovascular problems. In addition to this, one of the effects of constant exposure to high temperatures is the development of chronic kidney problems. In fact, there are several testimonies of workers who have suffered kidney failure for these reasons. In the face of all this, unfortunately, migrant workers can do absolutely nothing to protect themselves. The kafala system is also in force in the Emirates, and they are inextricably linked to their employers, who, as already mentioned, exploit and blackmail them.
In addition, many companies participate in these projects, some of which are also European. According to research by the Business and Human Rights Resource Centre, 27 larger companies are involved in these projects. Of these, only 12 recognise the risks to which migrant workers are exposed, and only eight have banned recruitment fees. Given the proven abuses that this category of workers has to endure in the UAE, these companies should, however, increase their controls by tightening them. This should be done through a study of the risks and the creation of a series of ways to mitigate them.
Reforms that do not reform
The conditions to which workers in the emirates are subjected represent a serious violation of their rights and show, once again, the sad reality behind these mega projects that the Gulf countries are financing and publicising with great impetus. However, over time, the Emirates have also carried out reforms aimed at improving workers’ conditions. In 2024, for example, one reform was made, and it was supposed to make a number of changes related to flexible working hours, maternity benefits, and increased penalties for labour abuses. It was also to provide greater protection for wages and protect workers from wage theft. The reality, however, is that this reform did not have the effects that were initially hoped for, as the kafala system, as in Saudi Arabia, continues to be stringent, and reports of abuse are commonplace.
Also in 2025, a recasting was implemented in the field of labour. The latter aims to establish a set of regulations that should make the relationship between employees and employers more balanced. Whether this new law will have the desired effect is not yet certain, as it is something new. Knowing, however, how these reforms are actually viewed in the Gulf countries and seeing how the previous ones did not have the desired results, doubts remain as to whether they will have the desired effect.
In the United Arab Emirates, therefore, we are also faced with a situation where the rights of thousands of migrant workers are systematically torn down. They are victims of a system that does not protect them in any way, but rather makes them like modern slaves. Their toil brings no concrete results, and they never manage to improve their conditions.
As if this were not enough, the conditions under which they are forced to work are extremely risky. This is especially true for those who are employed in the construction of renewable energy plants and have to work for hours under the scorching desert sun.
For this reason, the progress that, like Saudi Arabia, the UAE is highly publicising is not necessarily synonymous with change and improvement. There are continuous human rights violations in the country, which are precisely covered up by these promises of improvement in the country. When looking at these mega projects that the UAE is setting up, however, one has to think about the process that led to their realisation. One has to remember the workers who suffered, risked their lives and lived in degrading conditions to construct buildings and power plants.
Conclusion
The progress that Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates are making for themselves is nothing less than a demonstration of greatness and power. These countries are only investing in these mega-projects to attract foreign investors and to pretend that they are moving away from their traditions and entering a new and more modern era.
The exploitation of foreign workers employed in the construction of these mega-projects is clear proof that the progress that both countries want to extol is not real. No matter how hard both Saudi Arabia and the UAE want to try to make people believe that they are changing, the things actually happening in the countries prove exactly the opposite.
It is very important to continue speaking out and giving a voice to the thousands of migrant workers employed in these two countries. Their stories and testimonies of the abuses and risks they face on a daily basis serve to demonstrate concretely what lies behind these mega-projects that are so well-received and in which so many international companies are investing. Moreover, continuing to talk about this issue serves above all to keep the governments of both countries in agreement.
It is important that both Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates implement the necessary reforms to be able to protect the workers engaged in their projects. Those that have been passed so far have not had the desired effect, and abuses continue. First and foremost, both countries should put an end to the kafala system. The kafala system only creates unfavourable conditions for workers, making them de facto modern “slaves”. Secondly, workers must be more confident that the appropriate risk assessments have been carried out on site to avoid any kind of fatality. Finally, and this is especially true for the UAE, it is crucial that no worker is forced to work enduring temperatures at the limit of the acceptable.
Another thing is very important. Countries or organisations that have relations with Saudi Arabia and the UAE should always carry out due diligence to ensure that human rights are respected in both countries. By continuing to reward them and award them events of a certain calibre (e.g. the FIFA World Cup), they are only increasing the risks for many workers and helping those who then deprive them of their rights.
Talking about the mega-projects that Saudi Arabia and the UAE are developing is certainly very important from a human rights perspective. It is crucial that the dark sides of these projects continue to be highlighted and that their grandeur does not overshadow the suffering of those who have worked to bring them to fruition and who have been deprived of their rights because of it.